Author:
- Btihaj Ajana
Abstract:
Recent years have witnessed an intensive growth of systems of measurement and an increasing integration of data processes into various spheres of everyday life. From smartphone apps that measure our activity and sleep, to digital devices that monitor our health and performance at the workplace, the culture of measurement is currently on the rise. Encouraged by movements such as the Quantified Self, whose motto is ‘self knowledge through numbers’, a growing number of people across the globe are embracing practices of self-quantification and tracking in the spirit of improving their wellbeing and productivity or charting their fitness progress. In this article, I examine the biopolitical aspects of the Quantified Self practices, exploring some of the ideologies and rationalities underlying self-tracking culture. I argue that such practices represent an instantiation of a ‘biopolitics of the self’ whereby the body is made amenable to management and monitoring techniques that often echo the ethos of neoliberalism. Rather than being restricted to an individualized form, self-tracking practices are also becoming part of a biosocial and communal phenomenon in which individuals are incited to share with others information about their physical activities and biodata. In exploring some examples of this data sharing culture, I critically address the extent to which the sharing of personal physical data can be seen as a ‘solidaristic’ act that can contribute to a larger Big Data ecosystem and inform the wider medical community and healthcare research and policy. I link this discussion to debates on ‘data philanthropy’, highlighting the emerging tension between philanthropic discourses of data sharing and issues of privacy. From here, I go on to discuss further ethical and political concerns, particularly in relation to data security and the marked shifts in healthcare responsibilities.
Document:
https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/2055207616689509
References:
| 1. | Lupton D. Digitized health promotion: Personal responsibility for health in the Web 2.0 era, p.3, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/237608665_Digitized_health_promotion_personal_responsibility_for_health_in_the_Web_20_era (2013). Google Scholar |
| 2. | Cohen J. Quantified Self: The algorithm of life. http://www.prospectmagazine.co.uk/arts-and-books/quantified-self-the-algorithm-of-life, (2014). Google Scholar |
| 3. | McFedries P. Tracking the Quantified Self, http://spectrum.ieee.org/at-work/test-and-measurement/tracking-the-quantified-self (accessed 1 February 2016). Google Scholar |
| 4. | Topol E. How technology is transforming health care, http://health.usnews.com/health-news/hospital-of-tomorrow/articles/2013/07/12/how-technology-is-transforming-health-care (accessed 1 February 2016). Google Scholar |
| 5. | Fox S and Duggan M. Health online 2013. http://www.pewinternet.org/2013/01/15/health-online-2013/ (accessed 1 February 2016). Google Scholar |
| 6. | Swan, M . Sensor mania: The internet of things, wearable computing, objective metrics, and the quantified self 2.0. J Sens Actuator Networks 2012; 1: 217–253. Google Scholar | Crossref |
| 7. | Shin G and Jarrahi M. Studying the role of wearable health-tracking devices in raising users’ self-awareness and motivating physical activities, https://wish2014.files.wordpress.com/2014/10/sub-12-shin_jarrahi_wish_workshop_paper_2014.pdf (accessed 1 February 2016). Google Scholar |
| 8. | Patel M. Self-tracking and self-change: What’s the connection?, http://www.responsiblegambling.org/docs/default-source/Discovery-2015/disc2015_self-tracking_patel.pdf?sfvrsn=2 (accessed 1 February 2016). Google Scholar |
| 9. | Singer N. Technology that prods you to take action, not just collect data,. http://www.nytimes.com/2015/04/19/technology/technology-that-prods-you-to-take-action-not-just-collect-data.html?_r=0 (accessed 1 February 2016). Google Scholar |
| 10. | Fogg BJ. Persuasive technology: Using computers to change what we think and do. Ubiquity., http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=763957 (accessed 1 February 2016). Google Scholar |
| 11. | Pantzar M and Shove E. Metering everyday life: Feedback, feed forward and the dynamics of practice,. http://www.lancaster.ac.uk/staff/shove/choreography/meteringdraft.pdf (accessed 1 February 2016). Google Scholar |
| 12. | Rettberg JW. Seeing ourselves through technology, http://jilltxt.net/books/Seeing-Ourselves-Through-Technology-full-book.pdf (accessed 1 February 2016). Google Scholar |
| 13. | The Economist. The Quantified Self: Counting every moment. The Economist Technology Quarterly, http://www.economist.com/node/21548493 (2012). Google Scholar |
| 14. | Crawford, K. Our metrics, ourselves: A hundred years of self- tracking from the weight scale to the wrist wearable device. Eur J Cultural Studies 2015; 18: 479–496. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI |
| 15. | Crawford, K. Our metrics, ourselves: A hundred years of self- tracking from the weight scale to the wrist wearable device. Eur J Cultural Studies 2015; 18: 480. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI |
| 16. | BCC Research. Mobile devices driving unprecedented growth in self-monitoring technologies markets, according to BCC Research, http://www.bccresearch.com/pressroom/hlc/mobile-devices-driving-unprecedented-growth-in-self-monitoring-technologies-markets (accessed 1 February 2016). Google Scholar |
| 17. | Rettberg JW. Seeing ourselves through technology, p.64, http://jilltxt.net/books/Seeing-Ourselves-Through-Technology-full-book.pdf (accessed 1 February 2016). Google Scholar |
| 18. | Lupton, D . Quantified sex: A critical analysis of sexual and reproductive self-tracking using apps. Cult Health Sex 2014; 17: 1–14. Google Scholar | Medline | ISI |
| 19. | De Souza P. Self-tracking and body hacking: The biopolitics of the Quantified Self in the age of neoliberalism, https://bodycartography.wordpress.com/2013/06/11/self-tracking-and-body-hacking-the-biopolitics-of-the-quantified-self-in-the-age-of-neoliberalism/ (accessed 1 February 2016). Google Scholar |
| 20. | Martin M. Mind-body problems, http://havenscenter.wisc.edu/files/mind_body.pdf (accessed 1 February 2016). Google Scholar |
| 21. | Wolf G. The data-driven life, http://www.nytimes.com/2010/05/02/magazine/02self-measurement-t.html?_r=0 (accessed 1 February 2016). Google Scholar |
| 22. | Kelly K. In: Takahashi D. Quantifying our lives will be a top trend of 2012, http://venturebeat.com/2012/01/21/quantifying-our-lives-will-be-a-top-trend-of-2012/ (accessed 1 February 2016). Google Scholar |
| 23. | Whitson J. Gaming The Quantified Self, http://ojs.library.queensu.ca/index.php/surveillance-and-society/article/view/gaming (accessed 1 February 2016). Google Scholar |
| 24. | Till, C . Exercise as labour: Quantified Self and the transformation of exercise into labour. Societies 2014; 4: 446–462. Google Scholar | Crossref |
| 25. | Moore, P, Robinson, A. The quantified self: What counts in the neoliberal workplace. New Media Soc 2015; 18(11): 1–19. . Google Scholar | ISI |
| 26. | Bloomberg. Target to offer Fitbits to 335,000 Employees, http://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-09-15/target-to-offer-health-tracking-fitbits-to-335-000-employees (accessed 1 February 2016). Google Scholar |
| 27. | Bloomberg. Wear this device so the boss knows you’re losing weight, http://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2014-08-21/wear-this-device-so-the-boss-knows-you-re-losing-weight (accessed 1 February 2016). Google Scholar |
| 28. | Till C. Why do companies want us to be healthy? Corporate wellness, self-tracking and philanthrocapitalism, https://christopherharpertill.wordpress.com/2016/04/06/why-do-companies-want-us-to-be-healthy-corporate-wellness-self-tracking-and-philanthrocapitalism/ (accessed 1 February 2016). Google Scholar |
| 29. | Dentzer, S . Rx for the ‘blockbuster drug’ of patient engagement. Health Affairs 2013; 32: 202. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI |
| 30. | Lupton D. Digitized health promotion: Personal responsibility for health in the Web 2.0 era, 3, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/237608665_Digitized_health_promotion_personal_responsibility_for_health_in_the_Web_20_era (accessed 1 February 2016). Google Scholar |
| 31. | Corporate Wellness Magazine. Business attire: Wearable devices FIT corporate wellness strategies, http://www.corporatewellnessmagazine.com/features/business-attire-wearable-devices-fit-corporate-wellness-strategies/ (accessed 1 February 2016). Google Scholar |
| 32. | Lupton D and Selinger E. How obsessive self-tracking is eroding privacy for everyone, http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Passcode/Passcode-Voices/2015/0923/How-obsessive-self-tracking-is-eroding-privacy-for-everyone (accessed 1 February 2016). Google Scholar |
| 33. | Ajana, B . Recombinant identities: Biometrics and narrative bioethics. J Bioethical Inquiry 2010; 7: 241. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI |
| 34. | Aas, KF . The body does not lie: Identity, risk and trust in technoculture. Crime Media Culture 2006; 2: 143–158. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals |
| 35. | Wolf G. The data-driven life, http://www.nytimes.com/2010/05/02/magazine/02self-measurement-t.html?_r=0 (accessed 1 February 2016). Google Scholar |
| 36. | Quantid. 5 Reasons why you should be self-tracking, http://www.quantid.co/category/quantified-self/ (accessed 1 February 2016). Google Scholar |
| 37. | Moore, P, Robinson, A. The quantified self: What counts in the neoliberal workplace. New Media Soc 2015, pp. 7. Google Scholar | ISI |
| 38. | Moore, P, Robinson, A. The quantified self: What counts in the neoliberal workplace. New Media Soc 2015, pp. 7. Google Scholar | ISI |
| 39. | Aas, KF . The body does not lie: Identity, risk and trust in technoculture. Crime Media Culture 2006; 2: 153. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals |
| 40. | Ajana, B . Governing through biometrics: The biopolitics of identity, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013, pp. 89. Google Scholar | Crossref |
| 41. | Pugliese, J . Biometrics: Bodies, technologies, biopolitics New York: Routledge, 2010. Google Scholar |
| 42. | Magnet . When biometrics fail: Gender, race, and the technology of identity London: Duke University Press, 2011. Google Scholar |
| 43. | Ajana, B . Governing through biometrics: The biopolitics of identity, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013. Google Scholar | Crossref |
| 44. | Rowse LM. Statistics of the self: Shaping the self through quantified self-tracking. Scripps Senior Thesis, Claremont Colleges, USA, 2015, p.39, http://scholarship.claremont.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1656&context=scripps_theses. Google Scholar |
| 45. | Foucault, M . The history of sexuality volume 1: An introduction, New York: Random House, 1978. (1976). Google Scholar |
| 46. | Foucault, M . Society must be defended, lectures at College de France 1975–1976, New York: Picador, 2003. Google Scholar |
| 47. | Foucault, M . Security, territory, and population, lectures at College de France 1977–1978, New York: Picador, 2009. Google Scholar |
| 48. | Foucault, M . The birth of biopolitics, lectures at College de France 1978–1979, New York: Picador, 2010. Google Scholar |
| 49. | Hille L. The Quantified Self – ubiquitous control, http://www.digital-development-debates.org/issue-16-food-farming–trend–the-quantified-self-ubiquitous-control.html (accessed 1 February 2016). Google Scholar |
| 50. | Hille L. The Quantified Self – ubiquitous control, http://www.digital-development-debates.org/issue-16-food-farming–trend–the-quantified-self-ubiquitous-control.html (accessed 1 February 2016). Google Scholar |
| 51. | World Health Organization. Global recommendations on physical activity for health, http://www.who.int/dietphysicalactivity/factsheet_recommendations/en/ (accessed 1 February 2016). Google Scholar |
| 52. | Cooper BB. Is 10,000 steps really the best measurement of our health?, http://thenextweb.com/apps/2013/11/29/10000-steps-really-best-measurement-health/#gref (accessed 1 February 2016). Google Scholar |
| 53. | Rowse LM. Statistics of the self: Shaping the self through quantified self-tracking. Scripps Senior Thesis, Claremont Colleges, USA, 2015, p.49, http://scholarship.claremont.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1656&context=scripps_theses (accessed 1 February 2016). Google Scholar |
| 54. | Foucault, M . The subject and power. Critical inquiry. 781. Google Scholar | ISI |
| 55. | Vanderbilt T. How Strava is changing the way we ride, http://www.outsideonline.com/1912501/how-strava-changing-way-we-ride (accessed 1 February 2016). Google Scholar |
| 56. | Hille L. The Quantified Self – ubiquitous control, http://www.digital-development-debates.org/issue-16-food-farming–trend–the-quantified-self-ubiquitous-control.html(accessed 1 February 2016). Google Scholar |
| 57. | Wolf G. The data-driven life, http://www.nytimes.com/2010/05/02/magazine/02self-measurement-t.html?_r=0 (accessed 1 February 2016). Google Scholar |
| 58. | Lupton, D . The Quantified Self, Cambridge, UK: Polity Press, 2016. Google Scholar |
| 59. | Rabinow, P . Essays on the anthropology of reason, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1996, pp. 99. Google Scholar |
| 60. | Valle CG and Gibbon S. Introduction: Health/illness, biosocialities and culture, http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1809-43412015000100067. (accessed 1 February 2016). Google Scholar |
| 61. | Hagen N. From biosociality to digital biosociality, https://tycho5s.wordpress.com/2010/10/03/from-biosociality-to-digital-biosociality/ (2010). Google Scholar |
| 62. | Lupton D. Lively data, social fitness and biovalue: The intersections of health self-tracking and social media. p.12. http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2666324 (accessed 1 February 2016). Google Scholar |
| 63. | Sharon, T . Self-tracking for health and the quantified self: Re-articulating autonomy, solidarity, and authenticity in an age of personalized healthcare. Philos Technol 2016, pp. 1–29. . Google Scholar |
| 64. | Sharon, T . Self-tracking for health and the quantified self: Re-articulating autonomy, solidarity, and authenticity in an age of personalized healthcare. Philos Technol 2016, pp. 1–29. Google Scholar |
| 65. | Sharon, T . Self-tracking for health and the quantified self: Re-articulating autonomy, solidarity, and authenticity in an age of personalized healthcare. Philos Technol 2016, pp. 1–29. Google Scholar |
| 66. | Scholz, SJ . Seeking solidarity. Philos Compass 2015; 10: 725. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI |
| 67. | Swan, M . Crowdsourced health research studies: An important emerging complement to clinical trials in the public health research ecosystem. J Med Internet Res 2012; 14: e46. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI |
| 68. | Paton, C. Self-tracking, social media and personal health records for patient empowered self-care. Yearb Med Inform 2012; 7: 16–24. . Google Scholar | Medline |
| 69. | Lupton D. Lively data, social fitness and biovalue: The intersections of health self-tracking and social media, p.10. http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2666324 (accessed 1 February 2016). Google Scholar |
| 70. | Patients Like Me. PatientsLikeMe launches “Data for Good” campaign to encourage health data sharing to advance medicine, http://news.patientslikeme.com/press-release/patientslikeme-launches-data-good-campaign-encourage-health-data-sharing-advance-medic (accessed 1 February 2016). Google Scholar |
| 71. | Patients Like Me. PatientsLikeMe launches “Data for Good” campaign to encourage health data sharing to advance medicine, http://news.patientslikeme.com/press-release/patientslikeme-launches-data-good-campaign-encourage-health-data-sharing-advance-medic (accessed 1 February 2016). Google Scholar |
| 72. | Rhodes H. Accessing and using data from wearable fitness devices, http://bok.ahima.org/doc?oid=107442#.V5ePSY5zogs (accessed 1 February 2016). Google Scholar |
| 73. | Patients Like Me. Data for Good, https://www.patientslikeme.com/join/dataforgood (accessed 1 February 2016). Google Scholar |
| 74. | Baum S. PatientsLikeMe wants to convince patients to share health data through social media campaign, http://medcitynews.com/2014/03/patientslikeme-social-media-campaign-hopes-encourage-patients-share-data/ (accessed 1 February 2016). Google Scholar |
| 75. | UNGP. Data philanthropy: Public & private sector data sharing for global resilience, http://www.unglobalpulse.org/blog/data-philanthropy-public-private-sector-data-sharing-global-resilience (accessed 1 February 2016). Google Scholar |
| 76. | Kirkpatrick R. A new type of philanthropy: Donating data, https://hbr.org/2013/03/a-new-type-of-philanthropy-don&cm_sp=Article-_-Links-_-Top%20of%20Page%20Recirculation (accessed 1 February 2016). Google Scholar |
| 77. | Raghupathi W and Raghupathi V. Big data analytics in healthcare: Promise and potential, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4341817/#CR14 (accessed 1 February 2016). Google Scholar |
| 78. | Rhodes H. Accessing and using data from wearable fitness devices, http://bok.ahima.org/doc?oid=107442#.V5ePSY5zogs (accessed 1 February 2016). Google Scholar |
| 79. | Swan, M . Health 2050: The realization of personalized medicine through crowdsourcing, the quantified self, and the participatory biocitizen. J Pers Med 2012; 2: 93. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline |
| 80. | Verel D. UnitedHealthcare piloting fitness app that pays for healthy behaviour, http://medcitynews.com/2015/03/unitedhealth-piloting-fitness-app-actually-pays/ (accessed 1 February 2016). Google Scholar |
| 81. | Hille L. The Quantified Self – ubiquitous control, http://www.digital-development-debates.org/issue-16-food-farming–trend–the-quantified-self-ubiquitous-control.html (accessed 1 February 2016). Google Scholar |
| 82. | Lupton, D . The Quantified Self, Cambridge, UK: Polity Press, 2016, pp. 131. Google Scholar |
| 83. | Jordan M and Pfarr N. Forget the Quantified Self. We need to build the Quantified Us, http://www.wired.com/2014/04/forget-the-quantified-self-we-need-to-build-the-quantified-us/ (accessed 1 February 2016). Google Scholar |
| 84. | Jordan M and Pfarr N. The Quantified Us: Where small data meets Big Data, https://www.artefactgroup.com/articles/the-quantified-us/ (accessed 1 February 2016). Google Scholar |
| 85. | McGonigle, IV . The collective nature of personalized medicine. Genet Res Cambridge 2016; 98: e3. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI |
| 86. | Quantified Self. The 2015 Quantified Self Public Health Symposium, UCSD campus, 14 May 2015. https://medium.com/quantified-self-public-health/the-2015-quantified-self-public-health-symposium-e8cab0be1dd1#.lj5hjjetq (2015). Google Scholar |
| 87. | Wolf G and Ramirez E. Quantified Self/Public Health Symposium, UCSD campus, 14 May 2015, p.22. http://quantifiedself.com/symposium/Symposium-2014/QSPublicHealth2014_Report.pdf (2014). Google Scholar |
| 88. | Wolf G and Ramirez E. Quantified Self/Public Health Symposium, UCSD campus, 14 May 2015, p.10. http://quantifiedself.com/symposium/Symposium-2014/QSPublicHealth2014_Report.pdf (2014). Google Scholar |
| 89. | Health Data Exploration Project. Personal data for the public good: Final report, p.12. http://hdexplore.calit2.net/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/hdx_final_report_small.pdf (accessed 1 February 2016). Google Scholar |
| 90. | Health Data Exploration Project. Personal data for the public good: Final report, p.34. http://hdexplore.calit2.net/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/hdx_final_report_small.pdf (accessed 1 February 2016). Google Scholar |
| 91. | Babe A. Wearable fitness devices: Who owns your data? http://www.safebee.com/tech/wearable-fitness-devices-who-owns-your-data (accessed 1 February 2016). Google Scholar |
| 92. | Lee MS. Who owns your steps?, https://www.buzzfeed.com/stephaniemlee/who-owns-your-steps?utm_term=.btOENXamgr#.utj6P2XzOQ (accessed 1 February 2016). Google Scholar |
| 93. | Fitbit. Privacy policy, https://www.fitbit.com/dk/privacy (accessed 1 July 2016). Google Scholar |
| 94. | Kirkpatrick R. A new type of philanthropy: donating data, https://hbr.org/2013/03/a-new-type-of-philanthropy-don&cm_sp=Article-_-Links-_-Top%20of%20Page%20Recirculation (accessed 1 February 2016). Google Scholar |
| 95. | Yakowitz J. Tragedy of the data commons, https://works.bepress.com/jane_yakowitz/1/ (accessed 1 February 2016). Google Scholar |
| 96. | Leetaru K. Are research ethics obsolete in the era of Big Data?, http://www.forbes.com/sites/kalevleetaru/2016/06/17/are-research-ethics-obsolete-in-the-era-of-big-data/#5ee60571cb9a (accessed 1 February 2016). Google Scholar |
| 97. | Peppet, S . Unraveling privacy: The personal prospectus & the threat of a full disclosure. Northwest Univ Law Rev 2011; 105(3): 1153–1204. Google Scholar | ISI |
| 98. | Wartenberg D and Thompson WD. Privacy versus public health: the impact of current confidentiality rules, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2820076/ (accessed 1 February 2016). Google Scholar |
| 99. | O’Keefe CM and Rubin DB. Individual privacy versus public good: Protecting confidentiality in health research, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26045214 (accessed 1 February 2016). Google Scholar |
| 100. | Bernal P. ‘Individual privacy vs collective security?’ No!, https://paulbernal.wordpress.com/2013/10/17/individual-privacy-vs-collective-security-no/ (accessed 1 February 2016). Google Scholar |
| 101. | Fairfield JAT and Engel C. Privacy as a public good, https://scholarship.law.duke.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3824&context=dlj (accessed 1 February 2016). Google Scholar |
| 102. | Bernal P. Privacy isn’t selfish, https://paulbernal.wordpress.com/2014/01/21/privacy-isnt-selfish/ (accessed 1 February 2016). Google Scholar |
| 103. | Symantec. How safe is your quantified self?, https://www.symantec.com/content/dam/symantec/docs/white-papers/how-safe-is-your-quantified-self-en.pdf (accessed 1 February 2016). Google Scholar |
| 104. | Pennic F. Is your self-tracking health app or device really secure?, http://hitconsultant.net/2014/08/21/is-your-self-tracking-health-app-or-device-really-secure/ (accessed 1 February 2016). Google Scholar |
| 105. | Fitbit. Privacy policy, https://www.fitbit.com/dk/privacy (accessed 1 July 2016). Google Scholar |
| 106. | Fitbit. Privacy policy, https://www.fitbit.com/dk/privacy (accessed 1 July 2016). Google Scholar |
| 107. | Olson P. Fitbit data now being used in the courtroom, http://www.forbes.com/sites/parmyolson/2014/11/16/fitbit-data-court-room-personal-injury-claim/#147232c2209f (accessed 1 February 2016). Google Scholar |
| 108. | Alba A. Police, attorneys are using fitness trackers as court evidence, http://www.nydailynews.com/news/national/police-attorneys-fitness-trackers-court-evidence-article-1.2607432 (accessed 1 July 2016). Google Scholar |
| 109. | Alba A. Police, attorneys are using fitness trackers as court evidence, http://www.nydailynews.com/news/national/police-attorneys-fitness-trackers-court-evidence-article-1.2607432 (accessed 1 July 2016). Google Scholar |
| 110. | DataFloq. The problem with de-identification as a privacy control, https://datafloq.com/read/problem-de-identification-privacy-control/140 (accessed 1 February 2016). Google Scholar |
| 111. | Schoen S. What Information is “Personally Identifiable”?, https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2009/09/what-information-personally-identifiable (accessed 1 February 2016). Google Scholar |
| 112. | Narayanan A and Shmatikov V. Robust de-anonymization of large datasets (how to break anonymity of the Netflix prize dataset), http://arxiv.org/pdf/cs/0610105.pdf?utm_source=datafloq&utm_medium=ref&utm_campaign=datafloq (accessed 1 February 2016). Google Scholar |
| 113. | DataFloq. The problem with de-identification as a privacy control, https://datafloq.com/read/problem-de-identification-privacy-control/140 (accessed 1 February 2016). Google Scholar |
| 114. | Van der Ploeg I. The politics of biometric identification: Normative aspects of automated social categorization, p.13, www.biteproject.org/documents/politics_of_biometric_identity%20.pdf (accessed 1 February 2016). Google Scholar |
| 115. | Ajana, B . Augmented borders: Big Data and the ethics of immigration control. J Inform Commun Ethics Soc 2015; 13: 58–78. Google Scholar | Crossref |
| 116. | Dwork C and Mulligan DK. It’s not privacy, and it’s not fair, www.stanfordlawreview.org/online/privacy-and-big-data/its-not-privacy-and-its-not-fair (accessed 1 February 2016). Google Scholar |
| 117. | De Souza P. Self-tracking and body hacking: The biopolitics of the Quantified Self in the age of neoliberalism, https://bodycartography.wordpress.com/2013/06/11/self-tracking-and-body-hacking-the-biopolitics-of-the-quantified-self-in-the-age-of-neoliberalism/ (accessed 1 February 2016). Google Scholar |